Geography:  

Location: There is no disagreement in Armenian and Georgian historiography regarding the geographical position of Upper Javakhk: it is located in what is known as the Javakhk Plateau embracing the basin of one of the main right tributaries of the Koor river, the Parvana, and surrounded by mountain chains serving as watersheds on 3 sides (except for the western one). It occupies a territory of 2600 km2 and is located at an average altitude of 1700 m above the sea level.

Rivers: The Parvana, the main river of Javakhk , flows almost through the centre of the region and merges into the Koor river in the west, near Fortress Khertvis. All the other rivers of the region (the Boughdashen, the Karasnakn (left), the Heshtiajur, the Ablar, the Janjghajur and Jobaret (right)) are the right and left tributaries of the Parvana. They are fed by springs are constantly flowing. All the rivers flow across flat surfaces, except for the Parvana, which mainly runs through the gorge.

Lakes: The Javakhk Plateau is rich in big and small lakes. These lakes are scattered all over the region and in most cases do not have catchment basins. There are 6 well-known lakes, the largest of which is lake Parvana with a surface of 37,5 km2 and a maximum depth of 3,3 m . According to the altitude above the sea level, the lakes in Javakhk are classified in the following way: the Madatapa (2108 m), the Parvana (2076 m), the Tabatzghur (1990 m), lake Saghamo (1986 m), Khanchaly (1928 m) and Khozapin (1798 m). Among the large lakes, only the Tabatzghur and the Khozapin have catchment basins, while the others serve as sources for all the big and small rivers of the region. All the lakes abound in fish and have sweet water with the exception of lake Khozapin having salty water. The water is salty and contains lime, magnesium, chloride, and sulfurous acid.

Mountains: In the north, east and south, the Javakhk Plateau is surrounded by mountain ranges serving as watersheds. Mounts Aboul (3301 m), Samsar (3284 m), Pokr (Smaller) Aboul (2799 m), Madatapan (2714 m), St. Hovhannes (2375 m), Tashvanka (1883 m) and others are known to have the highest peaks.

Forest Cover: The first record testifying that there were forests in Javakhk is a Georgian (written with Armenian letters) inscription of X-XII c.c. preserved in the carved-in-rock monument complex called Samsar.

The “Large Register of Gyurjistan Vilayet” made in 1595 bears a reference to a small province named Antarayin ( Forest ) Javakhk in Khertvis Liva of Akhaltskha. This name is the eloquent proof of the fact that the west and north-west of Javakhk abounded in forests.

In the “Geography of Georgia” written by Vakhoushty Bagrationy in 1745, Javakhk is described as a province completely devoid of any forest cover. Interestingly, in the XVIII c. the province had already lost most of its forest cover. Therefore, the allegations that the Armenians from Karin who settled in Javakhk in 1830 were to blame for the disappearance of forests in the province are groundless. Most probably, the true reason for the disappearance of the forests was the severe natural and climatic conditions.

After the Great Patriotic War, forests were planted in the province with the efforts of the Armenians of Javakhk and forester Hovhannes Hakobian made a particularly great contribution to this undertaking. The severe climate has grown mild in the recent decades due to the planting of artificial forests.

Agriculture: The most developed branches of agriculture in Javakhk are the cultivation of cereals (barley, wheat, flax and oats) and stockbreeding. The local people as well as the inhabitants of the nearby and distant provinces have constantly been attracted by the favorable conditions of the province for the development of stock raising. The countless herds of the Georgian stockbreeders who came to Javakhk every year to find summer pastures caused great damage to the farming in the province. In 1899 and 1900, the corn bug and beetle caused great damage to the agriculture of the province and, in 1900, a committee was set up headed by the governor of Tbilisi . In the post-war period, the cultivation of the potato was widely spread in Javakhk.

Historical Review:

The Origin and Etymology of the Toponym Javakhk:

The oldest record about Javakhk Province of Gugark Region of Metz Hayk dates as far back as the VIII c. in the Khorkhor Chronicles of Argishty I (786-764) under the name of Zabakha. According to H. Karagyozian, the sounds underwent the following changes in this toponym: in Zabakha (the root of the toponym), “a” is the plural suffix characteristic of Indo-European languages. Thus, Zabakh is the original form of the word. Later the sound “b” turned into “v” and Zabakh became Zavakh. This kind of changes also occurred in other cases. It should be mentioned that one of the Aramaic inscriptions found in Mtskhet mentions the name Zevakh probably deriving from the toponym Zavakh which later turned into Javakh. Then Javakh changed into Javakhk acquiring the Armenian plural suffix “k” instead of the former suffix “a”.

V. Sargssian, a specialist of the Basque language, offers the following etymology of the toponym Javakhk in one of his researches: he suggests that Javakhk derives from “Japagh” his view resting upon the peculiarity of the geographical environment of the region and particularly the large valleys abounding in water.

Javakhk in the Pre-Christian Period: Javakhk is first mentioned under this very name in “Armenian History” by the V c. historian Movses Khorenatsy in regard to the administrative reforms realized by king Vagharshak. Regardless of the different interpretations of the list of the kings of the pre-Christian period, all the researchers agree that the aforementioned events date as far back as the II c. BC. In the IV c. BC Javakhk was the summer residence of the Georgian king Parnavaz, “In autumn and spring he lived in the city of Mtskhet , in summer in Javakhet and in winter in Ganchenk”. About 185 BC, Artashes I annexed the province to Metz Hayk Kingdom , while in 37 AD it became part of Georgia .

IV-IX c.c. : In the IV c. AD Javakhk is mentioned in the description of St. Nune's journey to Mtskhet, “... and in June I came to Mount Javakhet, and to the Parnava Sea, and when I came there I saw fishermen by the sea and shepherds on the seashore...”. When Armenia was first divided between Byzantium and Sassanid Persia (387 Ã.), Javakhk was annexed to the Georgian Province headed by the Marzpan (the governor) of the province, along with the other provinces of Gugark Region.

IX-XIV c.c.: In the IX c., the southern part of Javakhk, Gogshen, was annexed to the Armenian Bagratid Kingdom , but the central city of the province, Akhalkalak, remained part of Georgia . In 1065, the Seljuk-Turks conquered and devastated the region. In 1236, the Mongols conquered Javakhk. In 1266, thanks to their help, an Armenian called Sargis Jaghely established his rule in Javakhk and the neighboring Akhaltskha declaring himself independent from Georgia and Armenia .

XIV-XVIII c.c.: The princedoms known as Samtskhe-Saatabago survived until 1637, when the Turks finally conquered these territories. (In 1579, they had already occupied the north-west of the princedom, Akhaltskha with its vicinity).

Interestingly, considerable parts of the Armenian historical monuments preserved in the region were created during the existence of this very princedom (XIII-XVII c.c.).

The Turkish rule in Samtskhe-Saatabago was a true reign of terror and a substantial part of the population had to embrace Islam to escape total extermination. Throughout the XVII c., a large number of Armenians and Georgians were converted to Islam, but in a number of settlements of the region the population, both Armenians and Georgians, remained faithful to Christianity. In 1735, the region faced a new disaster: Nadir Shah invaded the northern provinces of Armenia , among which was also Javakhk.

XIX-XX c.c. : Javakhk remained under the Turkish tyranny until the beginning of the XIX c. being subjected to the rule of pashas whose residence was Akhaltskha. When, in 1810, the Russians moved forward from Tbilisi in the direction of Javakhk, Sherif Pasha ordered that all Christians of Javakhk should cross the Koor River and retreat into the depths of Turkey , but the population escaped emigration through the mediation of the Russians. However, after the latter had withdrawn, the pashas of Akhaltskha grew crueler towards their defiant subjects: when, in 1828, the Russian-Turkish war was over and the territory was finally annexed to Russia , only in very few villages had Christian inhabitants survived.

Once the reign of pashas collapsed, the population of Turkey and Russia started immigrating into respectively Russia and Turkey : a great number of people who had embraced Islam since the XVII c. immigrated to Turkey . On the other hand, part of the Western Armenians who had greatly supported the Russians during the war considering them their saviors had to leave their native villages for the Russian borders trying to escape the revenge of the Turks: they settled particularly in Javakhk and Akhaltskha.

There is no information whether the Armenian emigrants from Karin Province had received any compensation for their villages, gardens and arable fields left in their Motherland (we have great doubts in this respect). However, it is known that the Armenians often had to buy the unoccupied villages and arable fields from the emigrating Turks in order to settle in the new colony.

In the decades to follow, the Armenians got accustomed to their new settlements and improved them. A small number of Turks immigrated from Javakhk into Turkey in the years following all the next Russian-Turkish wars.

The Armenians and part of the Georgians were natives of Javakhk while the Dukhobors penetrated into the province in 1841 and settled particularly in the area of lakes Parvana and Madatapa, as well as near roads, which were of great strategic importance. After the collapse of the Russian empire, Javakhk turned into an area of dispute between the newly established republics of Armenia and Georgia , but Soviet Georgia took complete possession of it in 1921.

During the terrible period of the Patriotic War when Turkey was expected to invade Transcaucasia , all the Muslims of the area were sent into exile in 1944 by order of Stalin.

In the post-war period, the villages of Samtskhe-Javakhk abandoned by the Muslims were mainly inhabited with Georgians (about 80 villages) and partly by the Armenians (5 villages). These districts, which had a mild climate and fertile soil, were also inhabited by a small number of Georgian immigrants coming from Javakhk, while Armenians were deprived of this privilege. As a result, in the recent decades, the number of the Georgians has decreased in Javakhk instead of increasing, and in order to do something about this situation the Georgian authorities undertook the settlement of Adzharians in some villages in the late 1980s. However, the Muslim Adzharians who had abandoned their motherland in consequence of the natural disaster were not able to bear the very first winter of Javakhk despite the numerous privileges and benefits and returned to their motherland leaving the luxurious, large and two-storey residences that the state had presented to them.

After 1988, small-scale emigration could be observed among the Armenians and Dukhobors of Javakhk: the former immigrated into Amasia and Ashotsk Regions of the RA while the latter left for Russia . The situation changed drastically after the 1990s when a considerable part of Javakhk Armenians immigrated into Russia in consequence of poor economic conditions and this painful phenomenon is still in process at present.

The Population:

The densely located medieval villages preserved on the Javakhk Plateau testify that Javakhk was one of Armenia 's most densely populated provinces. According to the “Large Register of Gyurjistan Vilayet” made by the Turkish government in 1595, Javakhk, which was divided into the districts of Akshehir, Khertvis and Antarayin Javakhk had more than 200 villages. In the early XVIII c., the number of the settlements considerably decreased in the province.

Early in the XIX c. the number of the population considerably decreased in Javakhk because of the Russian-Turkish wars but, after 1830, it grew since Armenian and later Russian immigrants had settled in the province. In 1893, the province had 102 villages with 60.000 inhabitants.

Armenians: Monuments dating back to the pre-Christian period, dragon-stones, cyclopean fortresses, sepulchers and cists can be found both in Javakhk and in the Armenian Plateau, a fact proving that the cultures created and developed in Javakhk and in the Armenian Highlands have a lot of common features each being an integral part of the other.

In the IV-VII c.c., the quadrilateral obelisks were widely-spread in Historical Armenia as well as in Javakhk which proves once again that in the early Middle Ages the cultures of Javakhk and Armenia formed unity. A great number of cross-stones dating back to the IX-XI c.c. and those created in the XIII-XIV c.c. preserved in many villages and ancient settlements of Javakhk testify that the province was inhabited by Armenians in the aforementioned periods.

On the other hand, the unique cultural monuments created by the Armenian- Chalcedonians in the IX-X c.c. and until the XIV c. when the province was under the Georgian political sovereignty prove that the population of Javakhk also comprised adherents to the Georgian Orthodox Church (of Greek ritual).

The abundance of the cross-stones dating back to the XV-XVI c.c. indicates that unlike many other provinces of Historical Armenia Javakhk was in cultural bloom in that period.

In the XVII-XVIII c.c. Islam that had been imposed on Javakhk took root among the Georgians who had penetrated into the province during the previous centuries as well as the Armenian- Chalcedonians who had already converted once. The latter joined the Turks that had settled in the province since the establishment of the Turkish rule and the converted Georgians who had been deported from different parts of Georgia by the pashas of Akhaltskha. In the XIX c. the small number of the Armenian population decreased even more as a result of the mass deportation realized during one of the invasions of Nadir Shah. In consequence of the Russian-Turkish wars that had begun early in the XIX c. left Javakhk was almost completely abandoned, but the province was not to remain devastated for a long time: in 1830, the Armenians coming from different provinces of Western Armenia and mainly Karin populated its ruined villages.

A new unprecedented period of flourishing and developing commenced for the population of Javakhk who were not subject to any religious persecution and sufferings. The period of bloom continued until 1918 when the situation changed drastically: the Turkish army made an incursion into the province and most of the population had to flee to the neighboring provinces trying to avoid the inevitable massacres. Several months later when these people were given a good opportunity to return to their homes hardly did 1\3 of them come back: the rest had become the victims of the blockade imposed by the Georgian authorities who had tried to exterminate the Armenians of Javakhk taking advantage of the favorable situation. Famine-stricken and suffering from diseases, thousands of Javakhk Armenians found their last refuge in the Bakurian forests, which had turned into a Georgian “Ter-Zor”.

Despite the policy of national discrimination consistently conducted by the Soviet regime and the Georgian authorities, the Javakhk Armenians have been again improving their native province since the 1920s. The planting of forests on thousands of hectares is one of the manifestations of the love of Javakhk Armenians towards their native land.

Armenian Gypsies: The Armenian gypsies formed a very small number in the province: late in the XIX c. they occupied only 31 houses. According to the data published in 1892 the Armenian gypsies of Javakhk lived in Akhalkalak (25 houses) and Ekhtila Village (8 houses).

Russians: The Russian dukhobors who penetrated into Javakhk in 1841 were from Tambov Region as they exiled because of preaching the religion of their sect. They had been sent to Melitopol Province of Tavria Region (the Crimea) and from there they moved to Gandzak Province and then to Javakhk. They founded eight villages (Bogdanovka, Gorelovka, Yepremovka, Rodionovka, Spasovka, Tambovka, Troitskoye and Orlovka) and by 1845, they had occupied 495 houses with 4.097 inhabitants. In 1893, they had 991 houses in these eight villages. In 1990, the decision of the Council of Ministers of Georgia gave Russian Dukhobors the permission to return to Russia .

Turks: Still at the end of the XVI c. the Turk inhabitants constituted a very small number in Javakhk: for instance, in 1595, no reference is made to Turks in any settlement of Javakhk except for the village of Khertvis where only the landowners were Turks. After the establishment of the Turkish reign, more Turks penetrated into the province. Moreover, in the XVIII c. their number grew considerably due to the forced conversion of a substantial part of the local population to Islam. Early in the XIX c. when Russian-Turkish wars began, most of the Turk population of Javakhk or those who had converted to Islam immigrated into Turkey , while many Christians (mainly Armenians) formerly living in Turkey found refuge in Javakhk. The Turks also immigrated into Turkey in 1918-1921. The exile of 1944 put an end to the existence of the Turks as well as other Muslim inhabitants (for example, the Kurds) in Javakhk.

Kurds: The Kurdish tribes called Yuruk and Yuzdej penetrated into the western border zone of Javakhk, near Vardzunik, in the XVI c. At the end of the XIX c., they had houses in Mirashkhan, Nakalakev, Danet, Georgytzminda and other villages. The Kurd inhabitants of the province were sent into exile together with the Turks in 1944.

Migration:

After the immigration of 1829-30, a considerably small-scale internal and external migration took place among the Armenians of Javakhk. This phenomenon was mainly conditioned by economic factors and continued until the middle of the XIX c. The inhabitants of the newly founded villages frequently migrated establishing new settlements not only in the territory of Akhalkalak but also in the neighboring regions. As a result, new villages were founded in the neighboring Treghk (the present-day Tzalka Region) in the first half of the XIX c., which bore the names of the villages already existing in Javakhk: Nor Aragyal, Nor Burnashet and Nor Korkh.

As far as the internal migration of Javakhk Armenians is concerned, it began in 1830.

Small-scale internal migration could also be observed in Javakhk in the post-war period, but it stopped in the 1960-90s. Since 1993-94, Javakhk has faced continuous emigration due to the economic conditions, which are getting worse day after day: the inhabitants are mainly immigrating to Russia .

Education:

The first educational institutions came into existence in Javakhk in 1837: a number of villages of the province (Abul, Diliska, Chamdura) had private schools (called khalfa). The oldest parish school known to us was set up in Akhalkalak in 1836. In the 1860s new parish schools opened in the most populous settlements of the province and this continued until the early 1880s when Russian (state, royal) schools opened in some large settlements (Diliska, Kartzakh, Satkha, Vachian) by the government decision. These schools were a true threat to the Armenian parish schools, which were in poor financial conditions and lived a miserable existence. The trouble was that a considerable part of the illiterate population sent their children to Russian schools instead of giving them a national education thus contributing to the flourishing of the foreign school and the collapse of the national one. In 1885 and 1896-1905, the schools in Javakhk as well as all the Armenian schools (which were extremely poor) closed upon the order of the government. In 1905, they took permission to reopen the schools and new stage of flourishing started in the education field in Javakhk. By 1918, new educational institutions had opened in more than 40 settlements of the province, but in the turbulent years of 1918-1921, there was a great slowdown in school education all over the province.

After the establishment of the Soviet regime when the restoration of the settlements began, secondary, eight-year and primary schools were set up there according to the number of the population. However, by the decision of the Georgian Ministry of Illumination the subjects “History of the Armenian Nation” and “Geography of Armenia” were banned in these schools. Until 1988 these very subjects were also forbidden in Artsakh (Karabakh) annexed to Soviet Azerbaijan and, unfortunately, the present-day Georgian authorities have adopted the same anti-Armenian policy.

Earthquakes :

Javakhk is one of the most active seismic zones in the Armenian Highlands and the earthquakes of 1089, 1283, 1319 and 1899 were particularly disastrous for the province. More details about the extent of the damage suffered by the province are known only in connection with the earthquake of 19 December 1899 in consequence of which great damage was caused to 21 villages: there were 241 victims and 55 casualties. The latest disastrous earthquake happened in 1986.

The Historical Monuments :

Javakhk is a province rich in various centuries-old historical monuments: the numerous unique monuments of the province bear the traces of the influence of Armenian, Georgian and Byzantine cultures.

Archeology: The province is rich in archaeological monuments and the archaeological finds discovered in different periods shed light on the early period of the province history. Nicely decorated pitchers dating back to the second half of the I c. were discovered during the construction of a house in Totkham Village . Early in the 1960s, pieces of statues and other archaeological items were discovered in a ruined mausoleum situated on the territory of the province. Research has revealed that the finds date as far back as the VIII-VI c.c. BC and formed an integral part of the Araratian (Urartu) Kingdom culture.

The bronze astronomical calendar dating back to the I millennium BC and discovered in the settlement of Mokhrabloor (in Georgian Natsargora) is also of great interest.

The archaeological monuments preserved in the territory of the village testify that people have settled in Diliska since ancient times and this is proved by the phallus dating back to the II-I millennia BC and preserved in the sanctuary called “Saint of Gogol”.

Cyclopean Fortresses: Javakhk is rich in cyclopean fortresses, which date as far back as the III-II millennia BC and are comparatively well-preserved. In this regard, the fortresses located in Gandza, Bzavet, Khojabek and Satkha Villages are of great archaeological interest. It should be mentioned that similar monuments can also be found in the Armenian Highlands.

Dragon-Stones : The ancient dragon-obelisks (II-I millennia BC) dedicated to water cult which occur exclusively in the territory of the Armenian Highlands are widely spread. The huge single-piece stone obelisks bearing sculptures of snakes, bulls, rams and other animals, which are located on the banks of rivers, lakes and near the spring sources were discovered in many regions as well as Javakhk.

Medieval Fortresses, Towers Serving as Vantage-Grounds : Akhalkalak, Tmok and Khertvis are known among the fortresses having powerful defense systems. The fortresses built in the X-XI c.c. and reconstructed in a later period possess all the main features of fortress building: semi-circular towers, barracks, castles, underground and cut-in-rock wells, secret passages, etc.

Quadrilateral Obelisks : Early medieval quadrilateral obelisks occur in Historical Armenia. In the territory of the present-day Georgia , these monuments can be found only in the provinces of Gugark Region of Metz Hayk that are now part of this country, and among them is Javakhk. Tens of quadrilateral obelisks created in the IV-VII c.c. preserved in many ancient settlements are mostly displaced from their original places and are in ruins. A great number of pedestals belonging to formerly standing obelisks have also been preserved. The obelisks as well as their pedestals bear the characteristic features of decoration, such as acanthus leaves, grape brunches, sculptures and cross sculptures.

Churches, Monasteries, Chapels : Religious buildings have survived in almost all the settlements and villages. They can be classified into three main groups: Armenian (Apostolic and Armenian Catholic), Georgianized Armenian-Chalcedonian and Georgian Orthodox. The most ancient Apostolic churches (St. Hovhannes of Baralet, the single-nave church in Bzavet, etc.) date as far back as the V-VII c.c. Such buildings were also created during the next centuries until the XIX c. when Armenian Catholic churches were founded in a number of villages in Javakhk. Chronologically, these constructions were preceded by the churches built by the Armenian Chalcedonians, which date back to the IX c. and are considered Georgian belonging to the Georgian Orhtodox Church : Kumurdo of St. Hambardzum (Ascension), St. Stepanos of Ekhtila, St. Khach of Revelation of Khorenia, etc. As for the most ancient purely Georgian religious buildings, they date as far back as the XIII-XIV c.c. (Kotelia, Baralet, Moorjakhet, Varevan, etc.). In the XIX c., new churches were built in many settlements of Javakhk (both Armenian and Georgian) and even a Russian Orhtodox church was founded in Akhalkalak.

There are no churches in Javakhk dating back to the XIV-XV c.c. although a large population adhering to the Armenian Apostolic Church populated the settlements in Javakhk in that period. This fact suggests that beginning from the XIV c. the adherents of the Armenian Apostolic Church did not build any new churches in most cases and simply made use of those ones which had already been founded by their Chalcedonian compatriots. The evident proofs of the aforementioned are St. Hambardzum of Kumurdo, St. Stepanos of Ekhtila and St. Harutiun of Abul around which Armenian cemeteries dating back to the XV-XVI c.c are located.

The number of monasteries is not great in Javakhk and the preserved ones (Ekhtila, Karnet) which date back to the XII-XIV c.c. consist of one or two churches.

A number of small single-nave chapels found in the province are mostly built in elevated places, on the hills and mountain peaks: these are St. Hovhannes of Gandza, St. Lusavorich of Vachian, Jgnavor (Hermit) of Akhalkalak etc.

Cross-Stones: Ever since Christianity was spread in Armenia , monuments symbolizing the perpetuity of the cross have been created in this country. At first, these monuments were quadrilateral obelisks and then were turned in to khachkars (“khatch” meaning cross and “kar” meaning stone), which have been the embodiment of the creative mind of the Armenian being a purely national phenomenon. Khachkars were created all over the territory of Historical Armenia on different occasions, each having its own significance.

In Javakhk, khachkars are spread all over the province and are preserved mainly in ancient cemeteries, but among them, there are also others, which were fixed into the church walls in a later period. One can also find lonely khachkars, which serve as boundaries. There are khachkars belonging to all periods. They have undergone all the stages of development have been created in Armenia since the IX c. A great number of khachkars dating back to the IX-XVIII c.c. have survived, and fortunately, considerable parts of them bear inscriptions while others are dated.

As far as artistic decorations are concerned, the khachkars of Javakhk have mostly simple reliefs and certain peculiar similarities with the cross-stones preserved in the ancient settlements of a number of mountain regions of Armenia . The most frequent symbolic sculptures occurring on khachkars are the grape bunches, the six-wing David star and others. In general, reliefs are rare in the khachkars of Javakhk, unlike those of Karabakh. The same refers to the woven patterns and sculptured edgings. All these khachkars are of great historical significance, since they are monuments of Armenian medieval culture showing that a large Armenian population lived in many settlements of Javakhk Province for decades.

Today, khachkars are still created in Javakhk. They are often placed in the cemeteries of Akhalkalak and a number of other villages. True works of art, they are the carriers of new creative ideas resting upon the traditional basis.

The first reference was made to Javakhk khachkars only in the late XIX c. In the Soviet years, the cross-stones of Tmkaberd and Tzunda were studied by the Georgian researcher L. Davlianidze, while in the 1990s, Armenian scientists made an endeavor to carry out a thorough investigation into the khachkars pres erved in the province.

Interestingly enough, on the territory of the present-day Georgia , only Javakhk has a small group of khachkars (X-XIII c.c.) survived (Bavra, Vachian, Soulda, Khando, Varevan, etc.), which is the heritage of the Georgianized Armenian-Chalcedonians. Despite the fact that these khachkars bear the classical structural features of khachkars in general (among them also Georgian Armenian-lettered inscriptions), these cross-stones are devoid of such elements, which are characteristic of Armenian khachkars: the rosette symbolizing perpetuity, the life tree, the ball-shaped and plant endings of the cross wings, the sculptured edge belts, etc.

Cemeteries: In Javakhk, cemeteries are preserved in the present-day standing villages and settlements as well as near some monasteries. They date back to all the historical periods beginning from the pre-Christian period until now. Apart from the Armenian cemeteries, Georgianized Armenian-Orthodox, Georgian, Turkish, Greek, Jewish and Russian cemeteries are preserved in a number of ancient settlements. The tombstones preserved in these cemeteries are essentially different from each other, both stylistically and structurally. The gravestones surviving in the cemeteries of Apostolic, Orthodox and Catholic Armenians have a considerable number of similar features.

Tombstones: Apart from the wide spread rectangular, cradle-shaped and coffin-shaped gravestones, there are also a great number of church-like, ram-shaped and horse-shaped tombstones in Javakhk which date back to the period covering the early Middle Ages till the XIX c.

Bridges: Despite the fact that rivers abound in Javakhk, almost no medieval bridges have survived in the province. The only known bridges are the multi-span bridge of Ghaurma Village built on the river Parvana in the XIX c. and the two-span bridge of Gandza . The two-span medieval bridge built on the Koor river at the foot of Tmkaberd was of great interest from engineering point of view but only the piers have survived.

Public Buildings and Production Facilities : There are a great number of public buildings in Javakhk. Many housing complexes built in the XIX c. and consisting of a “hipped-roof” glkhatun (a type of hipped roof dwelling in the mountainous regions of Armenia ), tonratun (a building with tonir , a hole in the ground for baking bread), a barn, a cattle-shed and other additional buildings are preserved in many villages. The sculptured, sometimes also inscribed hearthstones symbolizing the welfare of the house are of great interest. The house built in Kumurdo in 1898 by Martiros Agha (Master) Vardanian, which has been preserved intact up to today is a highly skilful architectural construction.

In Javakhk, almost all the settlements had their creameries, while mills were characteristic of those villages that had enough water supply and abatement. Most of these production facilities were destroyed during the Soviet years and only the huge single-piece stones have been preserved. The stone of Satkha creamery (XIX c.) bearing a sculpture of a camel caravan is distinguished by its artistic decoration.

Discover the interesting map showing various monuments across Javakhk: http://www.raa.am/Javaxk/Jav_Hush_Map.htm

LAPIDARY INSCRIPTIONS:

Georgian scientists investigated only the Georgian lapidary inscriptions without even making a remote reference to the Armenian ones, while the Armenian researchers confined themselves to the study of the Armenian lapidary inscriptions making only a slight reference to the Georgian Mesropian ones.

Armenian Lapidary Inscriptions : So far, no consistent work has been carried out to assemble, decipher and publish the Armenian lapidary inscriptions of Javakhk. The small group of researchers engaged in this domain (M. Brosset, K. T. Margariants, H. S. Eprikian, Ye. Lalayan, Davlianidze...) has presented the deciphering of merely a few lapidary inscriptions, which do not meet the contemporary standards in this field. The publications presenting insufficient information regarding the XIV-XVI c.c. led some specialists, who had never investigated further into the matter, to jump to conclusions devoid of any scientific grounds. However, the continual field research carried out in the province revealed a large number of Armenian lapidary inscriptions dating as far back as the XI c., a fact that sheds light upon the moot points of the history of Javakhk. The fact that most of the Armenian lapidary inscriptions were discovered on the grave monuments of many settlements shows that a large number of Armenians inhabited the whole province.

Georgian Lapidary Inscriptions : A comparatively greater number of researchers have focused their attention on these inscriptions. However, the majority of these scientists were mainly busy re-publishing the same decipherings instead of completing, verifying, investigating them further and discovering new inscriptions. The Georgian Mesropian inscriptions date back to the period when the majority of the Armenian population of Javakhk became Chalcedonians, i.e. IX c. In the communities of Armenian-Chalcedonians as well as in Javakhk, the official written language was Georgian.

Beginning from the IX c., magnificent pieces of writing were created in Javakhk (as well as in Tayk) which was considered the “outskirts” of the Georgian state. These written monuments were naturally in Georgian, which had been adopted due to religious and political considerations.

Turkish Arabic-Lettered Lapidary Inscriptions : Despite the fact that the Turkish reign lasted for a long time in Javakhk, the number of the Turkish inscriptions is very restricted there, a fact showing that the Turks were not active in the construction field. The inscription of the mosque built in the citadel of Akhalkalak in the XVIII c. and that of the spring located in Erinja Village can be mentioned among the Turkish inscriptions preserved in the province.

Source: This article is based on the introduction of the following book:
Karapetian Samvel & Kananian Alexandre, THE HISTORICAL MONUMENTS OF JAVAKHK, Scientific Council of Research on Armenian Architecture (RAA), BOOK V.